Renaud Bourlès

Chercheur ,  Centrale Méditerranée

Économétrie, finance et méthodes mathématiques
Bourlès
Statut
Professeur
Domaine(s) de recherche
Finance, Théorie des jeux et réseaux sociaux
Thèse
2008, Aix-Marseille Université
Téléchargement
CV
Contact
renaud.bourles[at]centrale-med.fr
+33(0)4 13 55 25 32
Adresse

AMU - AMSE
5-9 Boulevard Maurice Bourdet, CS 50498
​13205 Marseille Cedex 1

Site
http://renaud.bourles.perso.centrale-marseille.fr/
Résumé In the microfinance sector, experienced lenders enjoy an information advantage over first-time entrepreneurs. Our study proposes an analysis of the business training provided on a par with microloans and its potential effect on borrowers’behavior. First, we present a simple theoretical mechanism showing that an information advantage concerning borrower risk can lead to a non-monotonic relationship between risk and business training provision. Second, using a hand-collected data set of loan applications to a French MFI, we empirically examine the relationship between business training provision and borrower risk, controlling for selection bias and endogeneity. The collected evidence supports the existence of a non-monotonic relationship and shows that business training significantly increases the survival time of loans. Our results are robust to alternative econometric models.
Mots clés Business training, Microcredit, Informed lender
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Résumé We provide the first analysis of the risk-sharing implications of altruism networks. Agents are embedded in a fixed network and care about each other. We explore whether altruistic transfers help smooth consumption and how this depends on the shape of the network. We find that altruism networks have a first-order impact on risk. Altruistic transfers generate efficient insurance when the network of perfect altruistic ties is strongly connected. We uncover two specific empirical implications of altruism networks. First, bridges can generate good overall risk sharing, and, more generally, the quality of informal insurance depends on the average path length of the network. Second, large shocks are well-insured by connected altruism networks. By contrast, large shocks tend to be badly insured in models of informal insurance with frictions. We characterize what happens for shocks that leave the structure of giving relationships unchanged. We further explore the relationship between consumption variance and centrality, correlation in consumption streams across agents, and the impact of adding links.
Mots clés Informal Insurance, Risk sharing, Networks, Altruism
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Résumé We study the dynamics of risk-sharing cooperatives among heterogeneous agents. Based of their knowledge on their risk exposure and the performance of the cooperatives, agents choose whether or not to remain in the risk-sharing agreement. We highlight the key role of other-regarding preference (altruism and inequality aversion) in stabilizing less segregated (and smaller) cooperatives. Limited knowledge and learning of own risk exposure also contributes to reducing segregation, the two effects (of learning and other-regarding preferences) being complementary. Our findings shed light on the mechanisms behind risk-sharing agreements between agents heterogeneous in their risk exposure.
Mots clés Risk-sharing, Agent-based, Cooperative, Learning, Altruism, Other-regarding preferences
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Résumé After‐tax income inequality has risen since the mid‐1990s, as increases in market income inequality have not been offset by greater fiscal redistribution. We argue that the substantial increase in the diversity of consumer goods has mitigated mounting political pressures for redistribution. Within a probabilistic voting framework, we demonstrate that if the share of diversified goods in the consumption bundle increases sufficiently with income, then an increase in goods diversity can reduce the political equilibrium tax rate. Focusing on OECD countries, we find empirical support for both the model's micro‐political foundations and the implied relation between goods diversity and fiscal policy outcomes.
Mots clés Redistribution, Panel data, Non-homothetic preferences, Variety, Probabilistic voting
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Résumé This article examines the link between entrepreneurial motivation and business performance in the French microfinance context. Using hand-collected data on business microcredits from a Microfinance Institution (MFI), we provide an indirect measure of entrepreneurial success through loan repayment performance. Controlling for the endogeneity of entrepreneurial motivation in a bivariate probit model, we find that "necessity entrepreneurs" are more likely to have difficulty repaying their microcredits than "opportunity entrepreneurs". However, type of motivation does not appear to make a difference to business survival. We build a stylized model to develop formal arguments supporting this outcome. We test for the robustness of our results using parametric duration models, and show that necessity entrepreneurs experience difficulties in loan repayment earlier than their opportunity counterparts, corroborating our initial findings.
Mots clés Business survival, Loan repayment, Business microcredit, Opportunity and necessity entrepreneurs
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Résumé We provide the first analysis of altruism in networks. Agents are embedded in a fixed network and care about the well-being of their network neighbors. Depending on incomes, they may provide financial support to their poorer friends. We study the Nash equilibria of the resulting game of transfers. We show that equilibria maximize a concave potential function. We establish existence, uniqueness of equilibrium consumption, and generic uniqueness of equilibrium transfers.We characterize the geometry of the network of transfers and highlight the key role played by transfer intermediaries. We then study comparative statics. A positive income shock to an individual benefits all. For small changes in incomes, agents in a component of the network of transfers act as if they were organized in an income-pooling community. A decrease in income inequality or expansion of the altruism network may increase consumption inequality.
Mots clés Inequality, Neutrality, Social networks, Altruism, Private transfers, Economie quantitative
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Résumé We study a risk-sharing agreement where members exert a loss-mitigating action which decreases the amount of reimbursements to be paid in the pool. The action is costly and members tend to free-ride on it. An optimal risk-sharing agreement maximizes the expected utility of a representative member with respect to both the coverage and the (collective) action such that efficiency is restored. We study the sustainability of the optimal agreement as equilibrium in a repeated game with indefinite number of repetitions. When the optimal agreement is not enforceable, the equilibrium with free-riding emerges. We identify an interesting trade-off: welfare generated by the optimal risk-sharing agreement increases with the size of the pool, but at the same time the pool size must not be too large for collective choices to be self-enforcing. This generates a discontinuous effect of pool size on welfare.
Mots clés Repeated interactions, Optimal risk-sharing agreement, Loss-mitigating actions, Collectively optimal
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Résumé This paper analyses the relationships between HIV/AIDS and education taking into account the appropriative nature of child income. Using a theoretical model, we show that considering remittances from one’s child as an insurance asset can reverse the usual negative relationship between disease prevalence and educational investment. This prediction confirms the results of an empirical study conducted on data compiled from the Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) database for 12 sub-Sahara African countries for children aged between 7 and 22-years-old. Using regional HIV prevalence as a measure of health risk, we find that the ‘sign of the slope’ between health risk and the enrolment of children is not constant. Splitting the data based on expected remittance patterns (for example rural versus urban), we obtain that the effect is most likely driven by household characteristics related to child income appropriation.
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Résumé This paper explores the effect of moral hazard on both risk-taking and informal risk-sharing incentives. Two agents invest in their own project, each choosing a level of risk and effort, and share risk through transfers. This can correspond to farmers in developing countries, who share risk and decide individually upon the adoption of a risky technology. The paper mainly shows that the impact of moral hazard on risk crucially depends on the observability of investment risk, whereas the impact on transfers is much more utility dependent.
Mots clés Economie quantitative
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Résumé We analyze in this paper how various forms of state intervention can impact microfinance institutions’ lending behavior. Using a simple model where entrepreneurs receive individual uncollateralized loans, we show that, not surprisingly, state intervention through the loan guarantee increases the number of entrepreneurs receiving a loan. However, after modeling business development services (BDS) provided by the microfinance institution, we show that the loan guarantee can have a counterproductive effect by reducing the number of entrepreneurs benefiting from such services. We therefore analyze an alternative policy: BDS subsidization. We show that if BDS are efficient enough and are targeted toward less performing borrowers, then-for fixed government expenditures-such subsidies do better in terms of financial inclusion than the loan guarantee. Moreover, we argue that-under similar conditions-BDS subsidization alone does better in terms of financial inclusion than a mix of policies. Copyright Springer Science+Business Media New York 2014
Mots clés Microfinance institution, Microcredit, Loan guarantee, L26, H21, G28, G21, G20, D82, Business development services
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Résumé We identify the impact of intermediate goods markets imperfections on productivity downstream. Our empirical specification is based on a model of multifactor productivity (MFP) growth in which the effects of upstream competition can vary with distance to frontier. This model is estimated on a panel of fifteen OECD countries and twenty industries over 1985 to 2007. Competitive pressures are proxied with industry product market regulation data. We find evidence that anticompetitive upstream regulations have significantly curbed MFP growth over the past fifteen years, and more strongly so for observations that are close to the productivity frontier.
Mots clés Competition, Productivity, Regulations
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Résumé In this paper we present results on the evolution of informal cooperatives in a population of heterogenous agents. The classical economics approach to cooperative develops models where agents, characterized mainly by their objective success function in a risky activity and their attitude towards risk, have to decide whether to stay in an existing cooperative or leave. After fitting an agent-based model with learning agents on this framework, we expand it to allow agents to create cooperative dynamically, where they decide to associate not only to those whom they think succeed as well as them, but also following other criteria, where friendship and compasion play a role. This paper, mainly exploratory, shows how the definition of network and the circulation of information that takes place in the system impacts on the formation of the cooperative and, as a result, on the distribution of consumption abilities in the population.
Mots clés Agent-based, Cooperative, Risk-sharing, Learning
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Résumé We identify the impact of intermediate goods markets imperfections on productivity downstream. Our empirical specification is based on a model of multifactor productivity growth in which the effects of upstream competition can vary with distance to frontier. This model is estimated on a panel of 15 OECD countries and 20 industries over 1985-2007. Competitive pressures are proxied with industry product market regulation data. We find evidence that anticompetitive upstream regulations have significantly curbed MFP growth over the past 15 years, and more strongly so for observations that are close to the productivity frontier.
Mots clés ICT, Regulations, Productivity
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Résumé The paper exploits macro-panel data for OECD countries. Close to the technological frontier, the education level, product market rigidities and employment protection legislation would be significantly related to TFP growth, with a substantial contribution of the interaction between market rigidities.
Mots clés Productivity, Growth, Regulations, Market Rigidities, Education
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Résumé Cette thèse a pour thème central l'étude du fonctionnement des accords d'assurance mutuelle et plus particulièrement de leur stabilité dans trois contextes différents. Le premier chapitre est consacré à l'analyse des conditions sous lesquelles un accord d'assurance mutuelle peut résister à l'émergence d'une compagnie privée. Modélisant les principales différences entre mutuelles et compagnies d'assurance, il complète la littérature existante en intégrant les choix d'investissement en capital des compagnies privées. Dans le cas d'agents exposés de manière homogène au risque, cette étude détermine l'unique choix optimal de la compagnie entrante ainsi que les conditions favorisant ou empêchant son apparition. L'impact sur les accords d'assurance mutuelle d'une possible hétérogénéité sur l'exposition au risque des agents est ensuite abordé dans le deuxième chapitre. Cette analyse permet de présenter l'asymétrie d'information comme une explication possible à l'échec de l'hypothèse de marché complet observé par la littérature empirique. Elle contribue par ailleurs à préciser l'avantage comparatif que possède l'assurance mutuelle en termes d'information. Enfin, le troisième chapitre prolonge l'analyse des conséquences de l'hétérogénéité face au risque à travers l'étude de l'assurance de long terme. La modélisation de contrats d'assurance mutuelle dynamique permet d'appréhender l'impact de l'aléa moral sur la stabilité des contrats de long terme (face à l'assurance de court terme). L'examen de ces phénomènes met en évidence le rôle des préférences des agents, en termes de prudence et d'aversion au risque, sur la stabilité des contrats d'assurance mutuelle dynamique.
Mots clés Adverse selection, Mutual firms, Moral hazard, Insolvency, Asymmetric information, Prudence, Incentives, Mechanism design, Insurance, Théorie de l&#039, assurance, Mutualisation, Théorie des contrats, Incitations, Asymétrie informationnelle, Anti-sélection, Aléa moral, Faillite, Prudence
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Résumé La présente étude s'inscrit dans la littérature récente sur les déterminants de la croissance selon la position technologique des pays. Outre les effets respectifs de l'éducation et des régulations sur les marchés des biens et du travail, elle explore aussi une possible interaction entre ces régulations. Des données portant sur 17 pays de l'OCDE sont mobilisées sur la période 1985-2003. Les principaux résultats originaux obtenus sont la caractérisation des effets du niveau de formation de la population en âge de travailler et des rigidités sur les marchés des biens et du travail sur la croissance de la productivité globale des facteurs (PGF). Pour les pays proches de la frontière technologique, ces effets seraient très significatifs. Une interaction entre les rigidités s'exerçant sur les deux marchés ressort nettement. Le fort impact du niveau d'éducation supérieure et des rigidités sur la croissance de la PGF semble traduire à la fois une influence directe et un effet transitant indirectement par la diffusion des TIC. Enfin, concernant le marché des biens, les composantes " barrières à l'entrée ", " structure du marché " et " degré d'intégration verticale " paraissent avoir une influence importante. Pour les pays éloignés de la frontière technologique, les résultats des estimations indiquent que le niveau de formation supérieure de la population en âge de travailler et les rigidités sur les marchés des biens et du travail n'ont pas nécessairement une influence significative sur la croissance de la PGF. Ces résultats soulignent l'importance des gains de croissance de la productivité, et donc de croissance potentielle, que certains pays industrialisés, principalement européens dont la France, pourraient attendre de la mise en œuvre de politiques visant à élever le niveau de formation de la main-d'œuvre en âge de travailler et à réduire simultanément les rigidités sur les marchés des biens et du travail.
Mots clés Croissance, Regulations, Education, Rigidités de Marché, Productivité
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Résumé In developing countries, many policy interventions aim to enhance female entrepreneurship by giving access to cash inflows targeting women. However, important investment decisions are usually made at the household level and may be influenced by local cultural norms about female labour force participation. Using a standard collective household model, this paper studies spouses’ joint investment decisions. We show that the individual optimal investment levels are not necessarily aligned between spouses, though costly utility transfers can realign spouses’ incentives. The required transfer is increasing in the stringency of the gender norm against female labour participation, making investment potentially too costly. We test these predictions using two different empirical settings and strategies. First, we exploit original data from a field experiment in India, which gave access to new investment opportunities to women through microcredit. We find that treated women belonging to castes that are relatively more favourable to women investing are more likely to engage in home agricultural production and less likely to engage in casual low-wage jobs. Yet, they seem to enjoy lower utility levels in some dimensions such as health and freedom. To the contrary, we do not find any change in the occupation or independence of women belonging to castes that traditionally impose strong restrictions on women’s behaviour, suggesting that investment is then too costly. Second, we exploit India’s accession to the GATT in 2005 as a natural experiment and use Indian household surveys to study the effect of the termination of quotas imposed on textile exports, a female-dominated activity, on women’s well-being. We find that in districts that are more suitable for cotton growing, a feminine-oriented occupation, removing the quotas increases specialization in garments and decreases health indicators for women belonging to castes that are relatively more in favour of women working. Those empirical findings are consistent with our model, showing that, in the presence of gender norms, female entrepreneurship entails intra-household transfers that impact female well-being and can eventually prevent investment.
Mots clés Female Entrepreneurship, Gender Norms, Intra-household allocation
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Résumé Public pension schemes serve as mechanisms for inter-temporal income smoothing and within-cohort redistribution. This paper examines the influence of income and lifespan inequalities on the structure of a democratically chosen tier-pension scheme. We use a probabilistic voting model where agents vote on the size and the degree of redistribution (i.e. the Beveridgean factor) of the pension scheme and can supplement it with voluntary contributions. Our analysis reveals that when all agents can supplement the public scheme with private contributions, their voting behavior depends solely on the share of total income redistributed through the pension system, referred to as the redistributive power of the pension. Income inequality positively correlates with the equilibrium redistributive power, while lifespan inequality exhibits the opposite effect, leading to a resource-time trade-off; particularly when both inequality measures are correlated. In scenarios where low earners are hand-to-mouth and unable to make voluntary contributions, the effects on pension size (through mandatory contributions) and degree of redistribution become disentangled. Income inequality diminishes pension size while augmenting redistribution, whereas lifespan inequality increases pension size while reducing redistribution. We provide empirical evidence from OECD countries supporting these theoretical findings and calibrate the model on French data to quantify the effects.
Mots clés Tier pensions, Inequality, Income, Lifespan, Intra-generational redistribution
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Résumé We analyze risk-taking regulation when financial institutions are linked through shareholdings. We model regulation as an upper bound on institutions' default probability, and pin down the corresponding limits on risk-taking as a function of the shareholding network. We show that these limits depend on an original centrality measure that relies on the cross-shareholding network twice: (i) through a risk-sharing effect coming from complementarities in risk-taking and (ii) through a resource effect that creates heterogeneity among institutions. When risk is large, we find that the risk-sharing effect relies on a simple centrality measure: the ratio between Bonacich and self-loop centralities. More generally, we show that an increase in cross-shareholding increases optimal risk-taking through the risk-sharing effect, but that resource effect can be detrimental to some banks. We show how optimal risk-taking levels can be implemented through cash or capital requirements, and analyze complementary interventions through key-player analyses. We finally illustrate our model using real-world financial data and discuss extensions toward including debt-network, correlated investment portfolios and endogenous networks.
Mots clés Financial Network, Risk-Taking, Prudential Regulation
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Résumé We study the dynamics of risk-sharing cooperatives among heterogeneous agents. Based of their knowledge on their risk exposure and the performance of the cooperatives, agents choose whether or not to remain in the risk-sharing agreement. We highlight the key role of other-regarding preference (altruism and inequality aversion) in stabilizing less segregated (and smaller) cooperatives. Limited knowledge and learning of own risk exposure also contributes to reducing segregation, the two effects (of learning and other-regarding preferences) being complementary. Our findings shed light on the mechanisms behind risk-sharing agreements between agents heterogeneous in their risk exposure.
Mots clés Risk-sharing, Agent-based, Cooperative, Learning, Altruism, Other-regarding preferences
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Résumé We provide the first analysis of the risk-sharing implications of altruism networks. Agents are embedded in a fixed network and care about each other. We study whether altruistic transfers help smooth consumption and how this depends on the shape of the network. We identify two benchmarks where altruism networks generate efficient insurance: for any shock when the network of perfect altruism is strongly connected and for any small shock when the network of transfers is weakly connected. We show that the extent of informal insurance depends on the average path length of the altruism network and that small shocks are partially insured by endogenous risk-sharing communities. We uncover complex structural effects. Under iid incomes, central agents tend to be better insured, the consumption correlation between two agents is positive and tends to decrease with network distance, and a new link can decrease or increase the consumption variance of indirect neighbors. Overall, we show that altruism in networks has a first-order impact on risk and generates specific patterns of consumption smoothing.
Mots clés Altruism, Networks, Risk sharing, Informal Insurance
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Résumé We study the dynamics of risk-sharing cooperatives among heterogeneous agents. Based of their knowledge on their risk exposure and the performance of the cooperatives, agents choose whether or not to remain in the risk-sharing agreement. We highlight the key role of other-regarding preferences, both altruism and inequality aversion, in stabilizing less segregated (and smaller) cooperatives. Limited knowledge and learning of own risk exposure also contributes to reducing segregation. Our finding shed light on the mechanisms behind risk-sharing agreements between agents heterogeneous in their risk exposure.
Mots clés Agent-based, Cooperative, Risk-sharing, Learning, Altruism, Other-regarding preferences
Télécharger HAL Google Scholar
Résumé This article examines the link between entrepreneurial motivation and business performance in the French microfinance context. Using hand-collected data on business microcredits from a Microfinance Institution (MFI), we provide an indirect measure of entrepreneurial success through loan repayment performance. Controlling for the endogeneity of entrepreneurial motivation in a bivariate probit model, we find that "necessity entrepreneurs" are more likely to have difficulty repaying their microcredits than "opportunity entrepreneurs". However, type of motivation does not appear to make a difference to business survival. We build a stylized model to develop formal arguments supporting this outcome. We test for the robustness of our results using parametric duration models, and show that necessity entrepreneurs experience difficulties in loan repayment earlier than their opportunity counterparts, corroborating our initial findings.
Mots clés Opportunity and necessity entrepreneurs, Business microcredit, Loan repayment, Business survival
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Résumé Long-term insurance contracts are widespread, particularly in public health and the labor market. Such contracts typically involve monthly or annual premia which are related to the insured’s risk profile, where a given profile might change based on observed outcomes which depend on the insured’s prevention efforts. The aim of this paper is to analyze the latter relationship. In a two-period optimal insurance contract in which the insured’s risk profile is partly governed by the effort he puts on prevention, we find that both the insured’s risk aversion and prudence play a crucial role. If absolute prudence is greater than twice absolute risk aversion, moral hazard justifies setting a higher premium in the first period but also greater premium discrimination in the second period. For specific utility functions, moreover, an increase in the gap between prudence and risk aversion increases the initial premium and the subsequent premium discrimination. These results provide insights on the tradeoffs between long-term insurance and the incentives for primary prevention arising from risk classification, as well as between inter- and intra-generational insurance.
Mots clés Long-term insurance, Classification risk, Moral hazard, Prudence
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Résumé The microcredit market, where inexperienced micro-borrowers meet experienced microfinance institutions (MFIs), is subject to reversed asymmetric information. Thus, MFIs' choices can shape borrowers' beliefs and their behavior. We analyze how this mechanism may influence microfinance institution decisions to allocate business training. By means of a theoretical model, we show that superior information can lead the MFI not to train (or to train less) riskier borrowers. We then investigate whether this mechanism is empirically relevant, using data from a French MFI. Confirming our theoretical reasoning, we find a non-monotonic relationship between the MFI's decision to train and the risk that micro-borrowers represent.
Mots clés Microcredit, Reversed asymmetric information, Looking-glass self, Bivariate probit, Scoring model
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Résumé We provide the first theoretical analysis of altruism in networks. Agents are embedded in a fixed, weighted network and care about their direct friends. Given some initial distribution of incomes, they may decide to support their poorer friends. We study the resulting non-cooperative transfer game. Our analysis highlights the importance of indirect gifts, where an agent gives to a friend because his friend himself has a friend in need. We uncover four main features of this interdependence. First, we show that there is a unique profile of incomes after transfers, for any network and any utility functions. Uniqueness in transfers holds on trees, but not on arbitrary networks. Second, there is no waste in transfers in equilibrium. In particular, transfers flow through indirect paths of highest altruistic strength. Third, a negative shock on one agent cannot benefit others and tends to affect socially closer agents first. In addition, an income redistribution that decreases inequality ex-ante can increase inequality ex-post. Fourth, altruistic networks decrease income inequality. In contrast, more altruistic or more homophilous networks can increase inequality.
Mots clés Social networks, Private transfers, Altruism, Income Redistribution, Income inequality
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Résumé We analyze in this paper how various forms of State intervention can impact the microcredit market in developed countries. Using a simple model where entrepreneurs borrow without collateral, we study the effect of different policies on microfinance institutions' lending behavior. We first introduce state intervention through the loan guarantee and show that, not surprisingly, it increases the number of entrepreneurs receiving a loan. However, after modeling business development services provided by the microfinance institution, we show that the government loan guarantee can have a counterproductive effect by reducing the number of entrepreneurs benefiting from such services. We therefore analyze an alternative policy: the subsidization of business development services by the State. We then provide a condition under which - for fixed government expenditures - such subsidies are more effective (in terms of outreach) than loan guarantees.
Mots clés Microcredit, Business development services, Loan guarantee, Microfinance institution
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Résumé In this paper we present a model of formation and destruction of informal cooperatives in a population of agents who perform a risky activity and who are heterogeneous in terms of success in their actions. Although some agents have high-risk and others low-risk, our model displays a dynamics with cooperatives in which agents share equally their income with a certain stability. We are interested in studying at the same time the existence of cooperatives, their ability to integrate a large proportion of agents and the degree of segregation of these cooperatives. Three factors can explain the existence, stability and lack of segregation. First, we show that the classical explanation in economics holds within the framework of our model: when agents are risk averse, high success agents can share with low success agents so that to stabilize the value of their income - the higher the risk aversion, the more stable the cooperatives and the lower the segregation. Learning can explain in a small proportion the existence of cooperatives: we designed agents so that they have to learn whether they are high or low-risk, and while they are learning, they tend to create cooperatives that can last. Eventually we worked on the integration of other-regarding preferences in the model, with two different definitions. As expected, the influence of other-regarding preferences is to increase stability and decrease segregation, and the two models of rationality react differently to the type of network in which the agents are immersed. This paper, mainly exploratory, presents our model and shows the influence of the definition of network as well as all other factors presented before. In that sense, although we have mainly done a rough exploration of its relevant parameters for the moment, it exposes different insights that can be gained by its study.
Mots clés Agent-based, Risk-sharing, Other-regarding preferences, Learning, Segregation
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Résumé This paper analyzes the relationships between HIV/AIDS and education taking into account the appropriative nature of child income. We first build a simple theoretical model linking parental health risk, educational choice and appropriation of future children's income. We show that considering (remittances from) child's income as an insurance asset can reverse the usual negative relationship between disease prevalence and educational investment. This prediction is tested on data compiled from the Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) database for 17 Sub-Sahara African (SSA) countries between the years 2003 to 2010 for children aged between 6 and 22-years-old. To account for the hierarchical nature of the data we employ a multilevel analysis. We find that, in general, the impact of community HIV prevalence on school enrollment is insignificant. Once the data is split to account for differences in appropriation, the effect of community prevalence becomes positive and sometimes significant for highly appropriable groups (rural, girls) and remains either negative for the rest.
Mots clés Health Risk, Education, Insurance mechanism, Remittance
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